A unique find for Siberia is being introduced into scientific circulation - a wooden cross from the burial on the Spassky Necropolis in Irkutsk, dating from 1710-1768. The article describes the subject and analyzes it. The article deals with the problem of using wooden crosses-calves in the burial practice of Russians in the XVIII century. The uniqueness of the cross made of rosewood is noted. Evidence is given for the existence of burials with wooden crosses on their bodies in 18th-century Siberia, but the question of the number of wooden crosses used to bury the dead remains open.

Keywords: Irkutsk, Spassky Necropolis, XVIII century, Orthodox burial practice, staurography, wooden body crosses.

Introduction

The origin of staurography, the science of crosses, probably dates back to the first half of the 19th century [Gnutova, 2001, p.3-12; Molodin, 2008, p. 3-7]. In the second half of the century, works appeared that are usually associated with the formation of this science [Gnutova, 2001, pp. 4-10]. In the post-revolutionary period in Russia, the number of studies related to the study of crosses sharply decreased; the situation began to improve only in the 60s of the XX century [Gnutova, 2001, p. 12]. The revival of stavrography as an independent discipline began in the 1990s. [Molodin, 2008, p. 8].

At present, with an increase in archaeological collections of crosses from excavations of Russian urban and rural settlements, Siberian prisons, and Orthodox necropolises, the relevance of staurographic research is obvious. Body crosses are often found during excavations of archaeological sites of the XVII-XIX centuries, mainly in burials. In European Russia, crosses made of metal, bone and wood were discovered during excavations of the necropolis of the Moiseyevsky Monastery on Manezhnaya Square in the center of Moscow [Wexler and Berkovich, 1999]. Crosses were found during archaeological work in Tver (Novikov, 2001), Pskov (Kolpakova, 2007), and the Vyatka Region (Makarov, 2003). In Yekaterinburg, during emergency work on the territory of the Novo-Tikhvin Convent, a collection of crosses was collected, among which there are stone, mother-of-pearl and wooden crosses (Pogorelov, 2005). In Chelyabinsk, metal bodies were found in most burials at the first city cemetery (Samigulov, 2002, 2005). In Western Siberia, body crosses

The work was supported by the Federal Target Program "Scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel of innovative Russia" for 2009-2013 (state contract N P52).

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Wooden body cross from the burial site of the Spassky necropolis in Irkutsk.

They are known from the excavations of Mangazeya (Belov, Ovsyannikov, and Starkov, 1981; Vizgalov and Parkhimovich, 2008), the Umrevinsky prison (Borodovsky and Gorokhov, 2009), Tobolsk (Balyunov, 2010; Danilov, 2007), and the cemetery of S. Izyuk in the Omsk region. [Tataurova, 2010]. Studies of the Tiskinsky Selkup burial ground, where Orthodox crosses and calves were found in the graves, are also interesting (Bobrova, 2007). Crosses are also found in large numbers in Eastern Siberia. The region is known for excavations of the Orthodox necropolis and structures of the Ilim prison, which were located in the area of flooding of the hydroelectric power station [Molodin, 2007], as well as studies of the Sayan prison, on the territory of which both ready-made crosses were found [Skobelev, 2005], and raw castings made, most likely, in the prison [Skobelev and Churikov, 2009, p. 267]. In the course of emergency work on the territory of the Krasnoyarsk prison, a large staurographic collection of the period of interest was collected (Tarasov, 2000, 2002). In the Far East, body crosses were discovered during excavations of the Albazinsky prison (Artemyev, 1999, 2005), and in Yakutia - the Alazey and Stadukhinsky prisons (Alekseev, 1996).

The development of a whole field of archaeology related to the study of Russian culture, everyday life, and spiritual life requires the use of methods from other sciences. Due to the large number of body crosses from cultural layers and burials of Russian and Aboriginal burial grounds, archaeologists are increasingly turning to staurographic methods for describing and analyzing the material. Crosses from archaeological sites are becoming a separate topic of research [Bobrova, 2004; Veksler and Berkovich, 2005; Molodin, 2002, 2005, 2007; Pogorelov and Popov, 2005]. E. P. Vinokurova developed a typology for cast metal crosses of the 17th century [1993, 1999], which is based on the following approach proposed by A. K. Zhiznevsky [Molodin, 2007, p. 40]. Subsequently, based on the classification developments of A. K. Zhiznevsky and E. P. Vinokurova, the typology of V. I. Molodin for the collection of metal body crosses from the excavations of the Ilim prison with some additions and changes formed the basis of a unique monograph [Ibid.]. Today, the works of E. P. Vinokurova and V. I. Molodina are the most important ones in the classification of staurographic collections, which should be used by archaeologists and art historians. Also noteworthy is a study aimed at improving the work of staurographers within the framework of a constructive approach, which sets out the methods of description and analysis, clarifies the terminology and suggests a program for measuring crosses [Pezhemsky, 2003, 2005].

In 2007-2008, during the archaeological excavations of the Spassky Necropolis in Irkutsk, conducted as part of the program for the preservation of the archaeological site of federal significance "Irkutsk Prison", 379 burials were examined and 234 crosses were found [Berdnikov, 2009b; Berdnikova, Vorobyova, 2007; Berdnikova, Vorobyova, Berdnikov, 2008]. These are mainly metal crosses made of alloys based on copper or silver. A massive wooden cross-body of good preservation from border No. 7 of the 19th picket does not fit into the general row (see the picture). The deceased man of senile age (senilis) was buried in a trapezoid coffin. The remains of a brick structure, probably the base of a tombstone - a cross or a slab-are fixed in the legs. The body cross was located in the area of the elbow bend of the left arm.

Wooden crosses are known from excavations in European Russia and the Urals

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[Veksler and Berkovich, 1999, p. 204-206; Kolchin, Yanin, and Yamshchikov, 1985, p. 112, fig. 210, a, b; Makarov, 2003, p. 211; Pogorelov, 2005, p.210]. On the territory of Siberia, a cross of the XVIII century was discovered for the first time.

Description of the cross

The cross under study is made of cape wood, probably Indian rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), also known as Indian (or East Indian) rosewood, or sonokeling*. This tropical tree species is found in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. The product is in satisfactory condition**, most of the flat-relief images and inscriptions are clearly legible. Some damage is present at the end of the upper and lower blades and on a small part of the left blade.

Dimensions of the cross: length 4.8 cm, width 3.5 cm, thickness 1.1 cm. Mast width (vertical part of the cross)*** 1.4 cm. Crossbar width 1,4 cm. In the middle cross, the lower and upper lobes narrow, resulting in peculiar recesses. The width of the upper blade in the recess area is 1.3 cm, the lower blade is 1.2 cm. A hanging hole is drilled on the side face of the top of the mast. The diameter of the inlet hole is 0.5 cm.

On the front side, the product is probably contoured around the entire perimeter (in some places the edges of the cross are damaged) with a thin relief roller. The same roller separates the upper blade from the crossbar at the middle cross. In the center is a relief image of the eight-pointed cross on Calvary, below it is a schematically rendered Chapter of Adam. To the left of the eight-pointed cross is a spear, to the right is a stick with a sponge. The image of the spear in relation to the vertical axis is located with a slight tilt to the left, the image of the cane is parallel. On the upper blade, the abbreviation CS is visible-perhaps CS (Christ) or CSB (Christ is the Son of God?). The first reconstruction option, CSB, is preferable. Probably, there was also an inscription above, but it is not possible to read it. It can be assumed that there was an abbreviation for the word "Jesus". On the left and right blades, the inscriptions are arranged in two rows. The upper inscription on the left blade is unreadable, the lower one is clearly visible-KO (Spear). On the right blade from above - XC (Christ), from below-TR (Cane). There was an inscription on the tip of the lower blade under the Head of Adam, but due to the significant damage to the surface, it is impossible to identify it. The reverse side and side surfaces of the cross are smooth, with traces of grinding, there are several cracks.

Analogs and problems of product attribution

There is no well-established classification for wooden body crosses, although attempts have been made to create one (Shabalina, 2001). Features of the body cross from the burial of the Spassky necropolis are the shape of the mast with recesses at the middle cross, which is characteristic mainly for wooden crosses, and the abbreviation on the upper blade, which does not correspond to the traditional title "King of Glory". The closest analogs of this cross in morphology can be attributed to the Novgorod carved calves of the XV century made of bone [Kolchin, Yanin, Yamshchikov, 1985, p. 93, fig. 176, a, b] and wood [Ibid., p. 112, fig. 210, a, b], as well as bone carved crosses made of Pereyaslavl of Ryazan, which date back to the XV-XVI centuries. [Baryshev, 2001]. We should also mention a similar-shaped wooden cross found on the necropolis of the Moiseyevsky Monastery in Moscow [Wexler and Berkovich, 1999, p. 206, fig. 19, 1]. It is difficult to determine the time of manufacture of this cross, but, as experts note, it is similar to a wooden cross of the XVI century from the collection of the Zagora Museum [Ibid., p. 205]. A similar pectoral cross in a silver salary, dating from the 16th century, is kept in the collection of the Rostov Kremlin State Museum Reserve (Shabalina, 2005). This shape is also characteristic of other crosses in this collection (Shabalina, 2002).

The iconography of the cross in question is not very complex and refined. Images of the eight-pointed cross on Golgotha above the Head of Adam and the instruments of the passion of Christ-spears and canes - are a common subject for small plastic products of the XVIII century. The Golgotha theme appeared in the XIV century, and by the XVI century. it has already dominated the images on "objects of personal piety" [Kolpakova, 2007, pp. 8-9]. Such symbols were also used on state seals of the late 16th and early 17th centuries (Avdeev, 2005, p. 282). In the 17th century, this tradition spread and became firmly established in the iconography of crosses-calves, pectoral and altarpieces

* Definition of Dr. V. I. Voronin (Siberian Institute of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry SB RAS).

** Cleaning and preservation of the item was carried out by art. V. A. Khutoryansky, Candidate of Chemical Sciences, is an employee of the Institute of Coal-Oil and Gas Synthesis of Irkutsk State University.

*** When describing the body cross, the terminology proposed by D. V. Pezhemsky [2003] is used.

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crosses and continued to exist after the split of the Russian Orthodox Church until the XIX-XX centuries.

An important issue is the dating of the cross. The functioning of the necropolis in the south-eastern part, where the cross was found, dates back to 1739-1768 (Berdnikov, 2009a; Berdnikov and Berdnikova, 2008). If the upper chronological boundary seems to be quite accurate, then the definition of the lower one raises a question, since burials were made at the walls of the Spassky Church, which had the functions of a citywide one, since 1710 (the year when the main building of the church was completed). Therefore, the burial with a wooden cross can be attributed with some degree of probability to an earlier period-from 1710.

The use of wooden body crosses in funerary practice

The question of how widely wooden crosses were used for burial is debatable. T. D. Panova points out that in urban burials of the XI-XV centuries, there are few body crosses recorded; such finds relate mainly to hoards from the residential layers of ancient Russian cities [Panova, 2004, p.157]. In the monuments of pre-Mongol Russia, crosses are found mainly in the burials of representatives of the feudal nobility and monasticism, more in the latter [Ibid., p. 160]. The tradition of burying with a body cross has been increasingly evident since the 16th century. (up to a third of burials are accompanied by crosses), and only in the XVIII century, according to T. D. Panova, it is fixed [Ibid.]. L. D. Makarov, a researcher of the Vyatka Region, notes the almost complete absence of religious objects in the Old Russian burials of the region [2003, p. 211]. In his opinion, the custom of burying with crosses, associated with the newly emerged need to demonstrate belonging to a certain trend of Orthodoxy, appears in the XVII century. after the reform of Patriarch Nikon [Ibid.].

Indeed, already in the burials of the XVIII century, a significant number of body crosses were recorded. Among the 336 burials of the Ilim Prison necropolis studied, 215 contained crosses (Molodin, 2007, p. 39), which is 64% of the total number of burials. In Irkutsk, during excavations of the Spassky Necropolis, crosses were found in 229 of the 379 burials (60% of all the burials studied), and in the Vladimir Necropolis (Berdnikova, Berdnikov, Batrakova, 2009), crosses were found in 31 (62%) of 46 burials. In the cemetery of the XVIII-XIX centuries in the village of Izyuk, 207 copper bodies account for 261 burials [Tataurova, 2010, p. 100], which is 79% of the total number of burials. As can be seen from the above data, from 20 to 30% of burials do not contain crosses on their bodies. Let us try to interpret this fact by assuming that T. D. Panova's statement about the spread and consolidation of the tradition of burying with crosses in the XVIII century is correct. As one explanation, we can cite the assumption of S. N. Pogorelov and V. N. Svyatov that in the Orthodox cemeteries of the XVII - early XIX centuries. There were also pagan burials in Kamensk-Uralsky and Verkhoturye; in most of the burials studied, body crosses were not found [2002, p. 121]. However, according to G. H. Samigulov, the absence of crosses in a significant part of burials should be considered a reflection of medieval practice, which began to change in the XVI century [2005, p. 162]. According to the researcher, it did not completely become obsolete in the 18th century, and burials without crosses were common. However, it is unlikely that all the deceased who fall within the specified 20-30% were buried without crosses on their bodies. At this time, there were a lot of metal and wooden calves on the territory of Russia, they were made in huge quantities in the workshops of Central Russia and the Russian North from the end of the XVII century. In addition, most of the 18th-century body crosses (as opposed to the same crosses of the 11th and 15th centuries) were found during excavations of necropolises, not urban layers. This may be an indirect confirmation that the majority of crosses fell into the grave with the dead.

The discovery described in the article from the burial site at the Spassky Necropolis in Irkutsk is evidence that in the XVIII century wooden crosses became part of the funeral rite of Russians not only in European Russia, but also in Siberia. Cheap-to-manufacture wooden calves made of soft wood could be widely used in the funeral practice of the poor. The existence of the Orthodox tradition of burial with wooden crosses-calves is confirmed by ethnographic materials. For example, according to the Old Believers of the Komi Republic, the deceased should not be buried with a metal cross on his body, and in the Vychegodsk and Pechora Komi, burying a person with a silver or copper cross on his chest is considered a grave sin: the soul of the deceased can remain lost forever [Sharapov, 2001, p. 300]. Mortuary wooden body crosses (pu perna) in the Pechora Komi were made of soft cherry or aspen wood [Ibid., p. 301], which was susceptible to rot. For obvious reasons, they were rarely preserved, unlike crosses made of solid wood. Easily destroyed in an aggressive soil environment and some metal

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telniki. During the excavations of the Spassky necropolis, traces of completely destroyed crosses made of tin-lead alloys were found, the surviving samples were not subject to restoration and restoration. V. I. Molodin also suggests that metal crosses made of tin and lead are destroyed in an aggressive soil environment [2007, p. 86]. He draws attention to the fact that body crosses made of tin were rarely made: according to popular beliefs, the metal providing protective power to the cross was copper [Ibid.]. However, copper crosses are not always preserved in burials. During the excavations of the necropolis of the Moiseyevsky Monastery in Moscow, traces of copper oxides were recorded in several burials, which are probably the remains of body crosses [Wexler and Berkovich, 1999, p.191, 192]. These facts can also explain the absence of crosses on the body in a significant part of burials of the XVIII century.

Conclusion

A wooden cross from the burial site at the Spassky Necropolis is undoubtedly a unique find. First, it is the first piece of fine plastic of this kind found in an 18th-century burial. on the territory of Siberia. Due to its good preservation, it has a special value as an object of research. Hypotheses about the practice of using wooden calves in the funeral rite by Russians in Siberia have now been confirmed. Secondly, the cross is made of a rare type of wood-rosewood capa. It is believed that cypress wood was often used in the production of small carved plastics, including crosses (undergarments, lapels, altars). Crosses were made from it, for example, in the carving workshop of the Solovetsky Monastery (Kondratieva, 2006). The collection of the Rostov Kremlin Museum also includes cypress crosses (Shabalina, 2002). Among the archaeological finds, we can mention cypress crosses found in the graves of Vyatka priests of the XVII-XVIII centuries [Makarov, 2003, p. 211]. Nowadays, the cap of Indian rosewood is considered a rather expensive material, it is used to make exclusive interior details, furniture, and musical instruments. In the XVIII century. the rosewood cross probably also had considerable value and could have been made to order. Third, the cross has an archaic shape, typical for crosses of the XV-XVI centuries. Given this, we can assume that it was made not in the XVIII century, but much earlier. Valuable "objects of personal piety" in the Orthodox environment were often inherited as family heirlooms.

It is also possible that the cross was made in a workshop where old traditions were preserved. In the 17th and 18th centuries, carving centers operated on the territory of European Russia and the Russian North: in Vologda, Ustyug Veliky, Kholmogorakh, Rostov Veliky [Shabalina, 2002], in the Spaso-Prilutsky, Kirillo-Belozersky [Maltsev, 1995, p. 21] and Solovetsky [Kondratieva, 2006; Maltsev, 1995] monasteries. In Siberia, such workshops are not known. However, it is not possible to link the origin of the cross under discussion with a specific center due to the fact that the method of attribution of products of this kind has not yet been developed. The search for analogs among small plastic products of the XV-XVIII centuries, unfortunately, does not clarify the situation.

It should be noted that many burials in which wooden crosses were found are the graves of representatives of the clergy. However, the grave in question with a wooden cross on the Spassky Necropolis does not belong to this category, at least in appearance.

Despite the fact that today wooden crosses are increasingly found in Russian burials, the question of the breadth of their use in the burial practice of the XVIII century remains open. The fragility of such material as wood and the lack of information in written sources about this detail of the funeral rite complicate the situation. To solve this problem, it is necessary to attract additional reliably dated materials from archaeological excavations and museum collections.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 09.07.10.

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